Concept about Learning | CHAPTER-9 | Research Methodology

Concept about Learning – In its most common sense, methodology is the study of research methods. However, the term can also refer to the methods themselves or to the philosophical discussion of associated background assumptions. A method is a structured procedure for bringing about a certain goal, like acquiring knowledge or verifying knowledge claims. This normally involves various steps, like choosing a sample, collecting data from this sample, and interpreting the data. The study of methods concerns a detailed description and analysis of these processes. It includes evaluative aspects by comparing different methods.

In this way, their benefits and drawbacks are evaluated, as well as the research goals for which they may be used. These descriptions and evaluations are predicated on philosophical background assumptions; examples include how to conceptualize the phenomena under study and what constitutes evidence in favor of or against them. In its broadest sense, methodology encompasses the discussion of these more abstract issues.

Concept about Learning

Learning is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, plants and some machines. Progress over time tends to follow a learning curve. Learning does not happen all at once, but it builds upon and is shaped by previous knowledge. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather than a collection of factual and procedural knowledge. Learning produces changes in the organism and the changes produced are relatively permanent.

Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling, or training. It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation.

Definition of Learning:

According to Robert Gagne

“Learning is a change in human disposition or capability that persists over a period of time and is not simply ascribable to processes of growth.”

According to Kingsley HL and Garry R

Learning is the process by which behavior is originated or changes through practice and training.

According to HP Smith

Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or strengthening or weakening of old behavior as the result of experience.

According to ML Bigge

Learning may be considered as change in insights, behavior, perception, motivation or a combination of these.

Or,

Learning is any relative permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice or experience. It means acquiring something new knowledge, new techniques, new skills, new fears, and new experiences.

Or,

Learning may be defined as a process of apprehension clarification and application of meanings. It is a continuous extension and refinement of meaning.

Or,

Learning is defined as “Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice and experience.

This definition has three important elements.

• Learning is a change in behavior-better or worse.
• It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, but changes due to growth or maturation are not learning.
• This change in behavior must be relatively permanent, and it must last a fairly long time.

(Ref by- K. Park/ 24 /676+Promilaa/1/232+Handouts)

Types of Learning /Domains of Learning:

There are three types of learning

1. Cognitive learning (knowledge)

2. Affective learning (attitudes)

3. Psychomotor learning (skills)

Conventionally learning is discussed under three domains-

1. Cognitive domain: It involves-

• Information
• Development of knowledge
• Intellectual skill

2. Affective domain: Based upon behavioral aspects, this beliefs domain incorporates.

• Attitudes
• Emotions
• Enthusiasms
• Feelings
• Values
• Appreciation
• Motivation.

3. Psychomotor domain: This skill based domain includes-

• Muscular skills
• Coordination
• Use of the motor skills areas.

(Ref by- K. Park/23/676+Rashid, Khabir, Hyder/5th/532)

Other Classification:

(Ref by-Jacob Anthikad/5/224)

Factors Affecting Learning/Factors Should Be Considered During Preparing Educational Objectives:

(Ref by-Park/24th/676+Handout)

Domains of Learning/Dr. Benjamin Blooms domain of learning:

Conventionally learning is discussed under three domains-

1. Cognitive domain: It involves-

• Information
• Development of knowledge
• Intellectual skill

2. Affective domain: Based upon behavioral aspects, this beliefs domain incorporates.

• Attitudes
• Emotions
• Enthusiasms
• Feelings
• Values
• Appreciation
• Motivation.

3. Psychomotor domain: This skill based domain includes-

• Muscular skills
• Coordination
• Use of the motor skills areas.

(Ref by-Rashid, Khabir, Hyder/5/532)

Bloom’s original 1956 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives identified the following levels of cognitive learning (arranged from lower-order to higher-order levels of learning):

1. Knowledge – The remembering of previously learned material; this involves the recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete theories.

2. Comprehension – The ability to grasp the meaning of previously-learned material; this may be demonstrated by translating material from one form to another, interpreting material (explaining or summarizing), or by predicting consequences or effects.

3. Application – The ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations; this may include the application of rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories.

4. Analysis The ability to break down material into its component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood; this may include the identification of the parts, analysis of the relationships between parts, and recognition of the organizational principles involved.

5. Synthesis – The ability to put parts together to form a new whole; this may involve the production of a unique communication (thesis or speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information).

6. Evaluation The ability to judge the value of material for a given purpose; The judgments are to be based on definite internal and/or external criteria.

Principle of Learning:

1. Learning is continuous, dynamic and ongoing process and has no required end

2. It is an individual matter, each learner learns his own way.

3. Motivation is the key of learning

4. Relevance of learning experience should be clear to the learner and must be related to his needs of lining.

5. The learner should be able to communicate back to the teacher what he or she has learned and as such feedback is important

6. In the learning process there should not be any authority-dependency relationship between the teachers and students; it cooperative and collaborative.

(Ref by-Rashid, Khabir, Hyder/5/531)

Principles of Learning According to Carl. Rogers:

1. Human beings have a natural potentiality for learning.

2. Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is perceived by the student as having relevance for his own purposes.

3. Learning which involves a change in self-organization in the perception of oneself is threatening and tends to be resisted.

4. Those elements of learning which are threatening to the self are more easily perceived and assimilated when external threats are at a minimum.

5. When treat to the self is low, experience can be perceived in differentiated fashion, and learning can proceed.

6. Much significant learning is acquired by doing.

7. Learning is facilitated when the student participates responsibly in the learning process. 8. Self-initiated learning which involves the whole person of the learner- feelings as well as intellect-is the most lasting and pervasive.

9. Independence, creativity and self-reliance are all facilitated when self-criticism and self- evaluation are basic and evaluation by others is of secondary importance.

10. The most socially useful learning in the modern world is the learning of the process of learning, a continuous openness to experience and incorporation into oneself of the process of change.

Characteristics of Learning:

Yoakman and Simpson have described the following nine important characteristics of learning.

Or,

• Learning is a fundamental process of life.
• It is a continuous process; it effects all modes of behavior.
• Learning is change in response or behavior, may be favorable or unfavorable. It is a process of change not a product in the form of changed behavior.
• Learning takes place when an organism reacts in a situation.
• Learning is universal.
• Learning is total reaction of the individual to the total situation.
• Learning is transferable.
• Learning is a process and not a product.
• The process of learning is determined by conscious as well as unconscious experiences.

Steps of Learning Process:

1. Motivation within the learner.

2. Goal or goals become related to the motivation.

3. Barriers of difficulties are perceived and experienced and tension rises. Strong barriers may cause excessive tension which may altogether discourage and confuse the learner.

4. The search for an appropriate solution to the problem or an appropriate line of action to reach his goal.

5. The most appropriate line of action is selected and practiced; inappropriate behaviors dropped

(Ref by-Jacob Anthikad/5/239)

Components of Learning:

Learning is a wider and perfect sense reflects as knowledge attitudes and skills development. These components of learning indicated by five C, whose meaning is expresses like as

1. C- Comprehension- with critical understanding.

2. C-Critical-analysis leading to appropriate conclusion (critical judgments)

3. C-Competency-with practical skill development.

4. C-Creativity- Able to create in a better way.

5. C- Confidence- Developed in the learner for application of what is learning in real situation.

(Ref by-Handout)

Styles/ Ways of Learning:

Learning is a complicated concept as everyone is unique in their own way, and learns in their own way as well. That said, it is still very much possible to classify a learning style into one of seven categories. Perhaps you fall into one of the following:

1. Visual: These people prefer to use pictures, images, diagrams, colors, and mind maps.

2. Physical: These are the “learn by doing” people that use their body to assist in their learning. Drawing diagrams, using physical objects, or role playing are all strategies of the Physical learner.

3. Aural: People who prefer using sound (obviously), rhythms, music, recordings, clever rhymes, and so on.

4. Verbal: The verbal learner is someone who prefers using words, both in speech and in writing to assist in their learning. They make the most of word based techniques, scripting, and reading content aloud

5. Logical: The people who prefer using logic, reasoning, and “systems” to explain or understand concepts. They aim to understand the reasons behind the learning, and have a good ability to understand the bigger picture.

6. Social: These people are the ones who enjoy learning in groups or with other people, and aim to work with others as much as possible.

7. Solitary: The solitary learner prefers to learn alone and through self-study.

Theories of Learning

Theories/Modes of Learning:

1. Learning by conditioned reflex: It is well known that when doxy food, they begin to wet salivate. This is an inborn reflect. Pavlov, the Russian psychologist discovered that if a -bell has run when the dogs were fed, eventually salvation could be induced by the ringing on the bell alone this is called the conditioned reflex.

2. Trial and errors: The lower animals (Apes & cats) learned by trial and error method. We also learn a good deal by this method. A child tries and tries again using a number of approaches until accidently the ideal approach became obvious.
ngud A

3. Learning observation and imitation: A child copies or imitates gesture, facial ad mort expression and movements such as walking. He learns language by observation and Limitation. Observation is an important element medical examination.

4. Learning by doing: Here there is coordination of muscular responses with sensory impulses. Nursing skills e.g. (bed making, applying bandaging, giving birth) are leant by doing

5. Learning by remembering: We also learn by memorizing- remembering dates, events, nou memorizing a poem, remembering faces etc,

6. Learning by insight: When we are faced with problem, we solve it by insight or mental exploration. When the doctors makes a diagnosis, some amount of insight is involved. It appears that human beings learn by a combination of methods.

7. Demonstration: Here a procedure is carried out step by step, slowly and accurately before and audience, the demonstrator-ascertaining that the au audience understand how perform it. The demonstration involves the audience in discussion, when possible. to

8. Field experience: It involves a series of activities for diagnosis problem, planning procedures to solve them and implementing and evaluating thus programs. It provides opportunities to acquire with number of skills

9. Problem solving.

(Ref by-K Park/234/67)

Trial And Error Method/Theory of Learning Mentioned by Edward Lee Thorndike.

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1947), the American psychologist, considered as the father of educational psychology conducted a series of experiments (1911) on trial and error method of learning by animals.

Experiment

A hungry rat was set free at the entrance of a wooden maze which contained many pathways from the entrance to the center. But all the ways except one were blocked somewhere in the middle. A piece of bread was placed in the center of the maze. Seeing the bread, the hungry rat rushed to get it.

It happened to enter the wrong path which was obstructed in the middle. Consequently it had to return to the entrance but only to try other paths till it reached the bread. The next day, it made less errors. The experiment continued for several days till the rat was able to identify the right path at the very first glance without trying out other parts. Thorndike conducted similar experiments on a number of animals, e.g. monkeys, dogs, hens and cats. The errors were reduced as the trials were repeated, i.e. SR connections were made. From, the rat’s experiment and several other similar experiments. Thorndike formulated certain laws of learning. According to Thorndike all learning is trial and error.

(Ref by-Jacob Anthikad/5/225)

Laws of Effective Learning:

A. Law of effect: Any response followed by a reward (Food) will be strengthened. Any response which is unsuccessful will be weakened.

B. Law of exercise: The law of exercise states that there is a direct relationship between repetition and the strength of the stimulus-response bond. The law of exercise is based on the law of use and law of disuse. As per the law of use, any task that is repeated shows a tendency for the strengthening of the bond and as per the law of disuse any task that is not repeated shows a tendency for the weakening of the bond. The learned activity (reading, writing, typing, singing, drawing, dancing, etc.) is learned by constant practice over a long period.

C. Law of readiness: Learning takes place best when a person is ready to learn. If a person is ready to act, acting gives him satisfaction. A person cannot learn if he is not ready to learn. Readiness includes motivation, inclination, attitude or mindset.
Thorndike ignored the role of intelligence and insight learning. Many scientific discoveries have taken place suddenly without any prior trial and error. Quite often individuals learn suddenly by insight rather than by trial and error which is a very time consuming process.

(Ref by-Jacob Anthikad/5/226)

Time When the Trial and Error Theory May Be Use:

The method of trial and error is used when:

1. The learner is completely motivated and sees the goal clearly. The rat tries to enter the maze only because it is hungry and knows that there is food inside the maze,

2. When perception or learned activities alone are not sufficient.

3. When the learner fails to find the solution to the problem through perception, understanding, intelligence and language. Then he proceeds blindly, tries in various directions, commits errors; eliminates them and finally arrives at the correct response,

4. Human beings learn most of the simple motor skills by trial and error.

(Ref by-Jacob Anthikad/5/227)

Effective Learning

Effective learning may be defined as the “Learning that reflective activity which enables the learner to draw upon previous experience to understand and evaluate the present, so as to shape future action and formulate new knowledge”

Or

Learning is: –

• an activity of construction,
• handled with (or in the context of) others,
• Driven by learner’s agency.

Effective learning is all of these at their best, Plus the monitoring and review of whether approaches and strategies are proving effective for the particular goals and context.

Ways to Make the Learning Effective:

With effective learning strategies, students can learn faster and easier. Here are some of the most basic strategies.

A. Organization Organization is a very important part of learning effectively. Having an orderly space to study helps the mind absorb new information without distraction. Time management also plays an important role. Everybody has only 24 hours in a day, so it’s important to learn how to make the most out of the available time.

B. Effective Independent Learning
There’s more to learning than knowing how to take tests. Everyone learns differently so there are many different styles of learning. If you know which style suits you best, learning will be easier. Knowing how to study properly and memorize the important things readily also make studying easier.

• Learning Style Guide
• About Learning Styles:
• Meta-Cognition
• Study Smarter Not Harder
• Memorization Techniques
• Memory Tips & Memorization Techniques
• Reading Strategies
• Effective Reading Strategy Checklist

C. Effective Learning from Others

Sometimes, learning on your own isn’t as effective as learning as part of a group. There’s a lot of evidence pointing towards collaborative learning being more effective than learning on one’s own. Even lectures can help someone learn as long as they know how to listen effectively. In fact, actively listening to lectures can boost one’s own efforts to learn.

• Collaborative Learning
• Small Group Learning
• Group Learning Paper
• Cooperative Learning
• Listening to Lectures
• Effective Listening Tips
• Active Listening

D. Writing Whether it’s just taking notes or taking a test, writing is one of the most important aspects of being a student. To be a good writer, there are lots of things you have to know. For instance, you have to understand how to use grammar and punctuation. You also have to know how to properly cite works, how to avoid plagiarism, and how to properly summarize.

• Essay-Writing Guide
• Advanced Essay Writing
• Academic Writing
• APA Formatting and Style Guide
• Scientific Report Writing
• Summarizing
• Paraphrasing
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Tips on Grammar, Punctuation, and Style

(Ref by-www.studentguide.org)

Adult Learning

Definition of Adult Learning:

Adult learning is defined as ‘the entire range of formal, non-formal and informal learning activities which are undertaken by adults after a break since leaving initial education and training, and which results in the acquisition of new knowledge and skills’.

Principles of Adult learning:

Knowles’ mentioned Six Principles of Adult Learning

Relationships between Teaching & Learning:

Theories of teaching must be based on theories of learning. The point of teaching is that children learn. So, a teacher has to know theories of learning and then teaching models have to be based on methods that will be consistent with how students learn.
If you are taking some type of test in education then the learning styles thing is probably a part of the answer that your professor would want.

But, truly, there is no research evidence that students have “learning styles” or that teaching to learning styles makes any difference in achievement. Really. But for some reason this seems to remain a popular notion in teacher preparation programs.

Reflection is also a popular notion in education right now, and if a teacher thinks about what he or she does in relationship to how children are learning then it is a very good strategy. What is missing is often data about how children are learning. One idea on how teachers can think about learning theories: They all have something to offer.

Constructivist theories suggest that kids construct their own knowledge, so you as a teacher need to know what they know before you start teaching, and you need to constantly check to see that their understanding of the material matches what you want them to learn.

Cognitive theories are related more how to students learn materials. This can help you to teach students ways to learn effectively (how memory works, how to get information into long-term memory, how to monitor your own learning-meta-cognition). Humanistic theories of learning suggest two things-that the relationship between the teacher and learner is very important, and teachers should work diligently to have a good relationship with students. It also suggests that motivation for learning is internal, and teachers need to sometimes “get out of the way” of learning.

Finally, the behavioral theories of learning suggest that the learning environment makes a big difference. Behavioral theories are useful for motivating students to learn, and they have a lot to say about how to teach students material in an organized fashion. At any rate, this is more than you wanted, but hope it is helpful.

Educational Objectives

The educational objectives are expressions of what a teacher hopes his/her students can accomplish as a result of his her teaching. Educational objectives are policy statements of direction and provide foundation of the entire educative structure.

Or

These are the statements, which express specifically and in measureable terms, an attitude that will developed cognitive or psychomotor skills that the students would be able to do as a result of prescribed treatment method or mode of instruction.

(Ref by-Promilaa/1/199)

Purpose of Educational objectives

• Prepare teaching learning program
• Facilitates course planning
• Communicates desirable emphasis of treatment
• Provides for selective approach
• Helps in curriculum design
• Facilitates evaluation
• Facilitates learning

(Ref by-Promilaa/1/200)

Characteristics of Educational Objectives

The characteristics of educational objectives are given below:

1. Relevant: It should cover every material relating to the ends in view

2. Unequivocal: Loaded word should not be used, to avoid any possibility of understanding. The objectives unequivocal describe what the learner will have to do to demonstrate that he knows or understands, or can do.

3. Feasible: It must be ensured that what the student is required to do can actually be done within the time allowed and with the facilitated to hand. The basic condition for feasibility is the minimum psychomotor, attitude and intellectual skills to quality for course and his prerequisite level.

4. Logical: The objective must be internally consistent.

5. Observable: It is obvious that unless there is some means observing pros towards an objective, it will be impossible to tell whether the objectives has been achieved.

6. Measureable: if teaching skill cannot be evaluated than teacher remains in awkward position being unable to demonstrate that teacher is teaching anything at all. That is why the objective should include an indication of acceptable level of performance on the part of the student.

(Ref by-Promilaa/1/200)

Types of Educational Objective:

1. According to types of objective:

• Institutional
• Departmental
• Instructional objectives

2. According to the domain:

• Cognitive domain
• Affective domain
• Psychomotor domain

3. According to person:

• Teacher centered
• Learner centered

(Ref by-Promilaa/1/201)

Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom along with a group of like-minded educators developed a framework for classifying educational goals and objectives into a hierarchical structure representing different forms and levels of learning. This framework was published as Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.

Developmental Level of Different Domain of Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:

A. Cognitive domain

A hierarchy of six levels (the hierarchy is what is most under question at present):

1. Knowledge: the recall of specific items

2. Comprehension: can recall, but can do a little more (e.g. paraphrase, define, discuss to some extent)

3. Application: all of the above, but can take information of an abstract nature and use it in concrete situations

4. Analysis: can break down a communication into its constituent parts, revealing the relationships among them

5. Synthesis: can pull together many disorganized elements or parts so as to form a whole

6. Evaluation: makes judgments about the value of materials or methods.

B. Affective domain

A hierarchy of five levels (the hierarchy is what is most under question at present):

1. Receiving: is willing to notice a particular phenomenon

2. Responding: makes response, at first with compliance, later willingly and with satisfaction

3. Valuing: accepts worth of a thing

4. Organization: organizes values; determines interrelationships; adapts behaviour to value system

5. Characterization: generalizes certain values into controlling tendencies; emphasis on internal consistency; later integrates these into a total philosophy of life or world view.

C. Psychomotor domain

The levels of this domain are categorized as:

1. Reflex: objectives not usually written at this ‘low’ level

2. Fundamental movements: applicable mostly to young children (crawl, run, jump, reach, change direction)

3. Perceptual abilities: catch, write, balance, distinguish, manipulate

4. Physical abilities: stop, increase, move quickly, change, react

5. Skilled movements: play, hit, swim, dive, use

6. Non-discursive communication: express, create, mime, design, interpret.

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