Cognitive Development-Behavioral sciences explore the cognitive processes within organisms and the behavioral interactions between organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal behavior through the study of the past, controlled and naturalistic observation of the present and disciplined scientific experimentation and modeling.
It attempts to accomplish legitimate, objective conclusions through rigorous formulations and observation. Generally, behavior science deals primarily with human action and often seeks to generalize about human behavior as it relates to society.
Cognitive Development | CHAPTER 20 | Behavioral Science
Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood.
Or,
Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a child’s development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain development.
Jean Piaget’s (1970) Theory of Cognitive Development:
The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) proposed four main stages of intellectual development (Table) each of which builds on the previous one.
He focused on the development of knowledge through assimilation (modifying the environment to fit one’s pattern of thinking and accommodation (modifying oneself to fit the environment).
| Stage and Age | Characterization: |
| 1. Sensorimotor (Birth-2 years) | The infant becomes aware of the relationship between what he can sense and what he can do with his muscles. He becomes aware of the relationship between his actions and their effects on the environment so that he can act intentionally-and make interesting even lasts longer (If he shakes a rattle it will make a noise) learns that objects continue to exist, even though no longer visible (object permanence). |
| 2. Preoperational (2-6 years) | Uses language and can represent objects by images and words, is still a egocentric (the world revolves around him) and he has difficulty in taking the view point of others; classify objects by single salient features; if A is like B in one respect A must be like B in other respects. Towards the end of the stage, begins to use numbers and develop conservation concepts. |
| 3. Concretely operational (6- 12 years) | Becomes capable of logical thought, achieve conservation concepts in this order: number (age 6) mass (age 7) weight (age 9). Can classify objects, order them in series along a dimension (such as size) and understand rational term (A is longer than B) loses egocentricity. |
| 4. Formally, operational (12-15 years) | Can think in abstract terms, follow logical propositions; and reason by hypothesis, isolates the elements of a problem, and systematically explores all possible solutions; becomes concerned with the hypothetical, future and ideological problems. |
Table: Stages in cognitive development (Development of mental or cognitive processes that enable a clued to know about the world)
(Ref by-Jacob Anthikad/5th/193-195)
Criticism of Piaget’s Theory
- American psychologists do not agree with Piaget’s view that infants are born with some elementary mental structures to enable them to deal with the environment.
- Gagne is of the view that stages described by Piaget are not a result of inborn “Time table” but as a result of later learning by the child which is complex and progressive. Physical and social environment also play an important role.
(Ref by-Jacob Anthikad/5/196)
Theories of Intelligence:
The following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.
Charles Spearman – General Intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others.
He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed.
Louis L. Thurstone – Primary Mental Abilities
Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone’s theory focused on seven different “primary mental abilities.” The abilities that he described were:
- Verbal comprehension
- Reasoning
- Perceptual speed
- Numerical ability
- Word fluency
- Associative memory
- Spatial visualization
Howard Gardner – Multiple Intelligences
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people’s abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences based on skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures.
The eight intelligences Gardner described are:
- Visual-spatial Intelligence
- Verbal-linguistic Intelligence
- Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
- Logical-mathematical Intelligence
- Interpersonal Intelligence
- Musical Intelligence
- Intrapersonal Intelligence
- Naturalistic Intelligence
Robert Sternberg – Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as “mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life.” While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner’s intelligences are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he referred to as ‘successful intelligence’ involving three different factors:
- Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.
- Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the capacity to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills.
- Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.
(Ref by-AB Salgado/1/72)
Measurement of IO:
Intelligence Quotient (IQ):
William Stern, the German psychologist introduced the concept of IQ. IQ is obtained when the mental age (MA) is divided by the chronological age (CA) which is the actual age of the person in years and multiplied by 100 (to avoid decimals):
IQ =MA / CA X100
Imagine a 10-year-old child scores a mental age of 12. His IQ will be:
IQ = MA / CA X100
=12/10 X100 = 120
If a 12-year-old child scores a mental age of 12. His IQ will be:
IQ = MA / CA X100
= 12/12 X100 = 100
If two children both obtain an MA of 5 years but one child is 4 years old and the other is six:
Child 1
IQ = MA/CA X100
IQ = 5/4 X100
= 125
Child 2
IQ 5/6 X100 =83
Thus, the bright child has an IQ of 125 while the slower child has an IQ of 83.
Any person will reach a maximum IQ at about 18 years. Depending upon favorable conditions such as higher education-and challenging learning experience, the IQ may increase slightly till age thirty. After 30, the IQ does not change except that it decreases slightly with old age. There is no difference between IQ of men and women.
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