Definition of Psychology – Behavioral sciences explore the cognitive processes within organisms and the behavioral interactions between organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal behavior through the study of the past, controlled and naturalistic observation of the present and disciplined scientific experimentation and modeling.
It attempts to accomplish legitimate, objective conclusions through rigorous formulations and observation. Generally, behavior science deals primarily with human action and often seeks to generalize about human behavior as it relates to society.
Definition of Psychology
Concept about Psychology
Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is an academic discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases.
It was in the year 1590 that Rudolf Geockle used the word Psychology.
It is derived from two Greek words “Psyche” and “logos”. “Psyche” means soul or spirit. “Logos” means knowledge or study of. Psychology thus was the study of the soul. The word soul was used vaguely and attained religious significance with the rise of Christianity. Therefore William James (1842-1910) used the term “mind” in place of soul in 1890. But this definition also became unsatisfactory because mind was abstract and could not be seen or understood, unless what the mind did was seen
The term psychology is very uncommon to most people in comparison to other subjects, such as chemistry, physics, biology, etc. People use to consider it the study of the mind, mystery of human mental life, which is subjected to predicting behavior of people.
They are of the view that if they study psychology, they will learn about miracles, mysteries and madness, which could be an exotic experience. Without understanding the nature, scope, methods and application of psychology, they use the term differently. This chapter has an objective to clarify the concept of psychology as scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Many people feel that the main use of psychology is in treating mentally abnormal individuals.
Although, certainly, this is an important area of application, it is not the only area of study. Let us discuss the real meaning and scope of psychology in the chapter.
History and Origin of Psychology
The beginnings of psychology are to be found in the curiosity of primitive man about himself and his companions. The development of psychology as a science has followed a long and somewhat uncertain course through the centuries. The Greeks were the first to study mental illness scientifically and separate the study of the mind from religion.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) described mind as a function of bodily processes. He emphasized the release of repressed emotions for effective treatment of mental diseases.
Hippocrates (460-370 BC), father of medicine ruled out the possibilities of deities as the cause of mental diseases. They are due to brain pathology.
With the fall of Roman Empire, superstitions came to dominate human thinking for many centuries. During the middle ages, the mentally ill were not considered as outcasts but as people to be helped. St. Augustin believed that although God acted directly in human affairs, people were responsible for their own actions.
In 1547, the monastery of St. Mary of Bethlehem in London was officially converted into a mental asylum. In 1773, the first mental hospital in the US was built in Williamburg, Virginia. In 1793, Philipe Pine) (1745-1826) removed the chains from mentally ill patients confined in BICETRE, a hospital outside Paris, thus bringing about the first revolution in psychiatry.
In 1908, Clifford Beers, an ex-mental patient, wrote the book, “the Mind that found itself” based on his bitter experiences in the mental hospital. He founded the American Mental Health Association which made a major contribution to improve the condition of mental hospitals.
Psychology is the evolution of philosophical ideas of Greek philosophers such as Plato and Socrates. Ancient people, all around the world, had strong beliefs that human beings are the entities of two components, body and soul. Plato and Socrates also stated that after death, the human psyche is better able to achieve wisdom and experience the platonic forms since it is unhindered by the body. These ideas of Greek philosophers were more mythological and unscientific to prove.
Later, its meaning has changed to ‘mind’ rather than ‘soul’, but still the term is very vague and undefined as the mind is an invisible subject matter of study. The modern psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Psychology was a branch of philosophy until 1870s, when it developed as an independent scientific discipline in Germany and the United States.
The modern psychologists and philosophers try to understand or explain the human mind and its connection to the physical body, as physicist Gustav Fechner explained the relationship between physical phenomenon and the psychology of human mind, known as psychophysics. Hermann Von Helmholtz performed an experiment in visual and auditory perception.
In 1879, German philosopher Wilhelm Wundt established a laboratory for psychological studies at Leipzig University (Karl Marx University), Germany. He attempted to bring objective measurement to the concept of psychology. These attempts paved the way for the establishment of the first experimental laboratory in psychology.
Definitions of Psychology:
The term psychology is derived from two Greek words “Psyche” and “logos”. The word “Psyche” means soul or spirit. “Logos” means knowledge or study of. Psychology thus was the study of the soul.
According to Clifford T Morgan
“Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior and it includes the application of this science to solve human problems”
Behavior is classified as-
According to (Walter Bowers Pillsbury-1911)
Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior; it includes the application of behavioral science to human problems. Psychology is the science of human behavior.
According to (William Mc Doughall-1949)
Psychology is a science, which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behavior of the organism as a whole.
According to (NL Munn-1967)
Psychology is a science and the properly trained psychologist is a scientist or at least a practitioner, who uses scientific methods or information resulting from scientific investigation.
According to (Jackson-1976)
Psychology is the investigation of human and animal behavior and of the mental and physiological processes associated with the behavior.
Nature/Characteristics of Psychology:
The nature of psychology is quite scientific. This fact has been properly recognized by eminent psychologists and thinkers as may be inferred from the definition of psychology, in terms of the scientific study or science of behavior. A science is a systematic body of knowledge about a particular set of events, phenomena or objects in nature, accumulated through methodical and systematic observation. Any field of knowledge that satisfies this requirement can be called science. Let us describe the nature of psychology as follows:
- It is a positive or natural, not a normative, science. Ethics is a normative science because it deals with behavior as it should be. In positive science, we merely describe behavior as we discover or find it without evaluating it.
- It discovers and explains the underlying laws and principles of behavior and forms a well-organized theory of human behaviors.
- It collects the subject matter or facts of behavior by means of objective methods such as
observation and experiment. - It helps us predict and control behavior to some extent, with the help of the general laws it prescribes.
- It describes the facts of human behavior and its laws as they are rather than as they ought to be.
On the basis of above characteristics, it may be established beyond doubt that psychology qualifies as a science. Its nature is quite scientific, and not philosophical.
Systems of Psychology or Schools of Psychology
A. Structuralism:
Like complex chemical compounds are made of elements, psychologists made a similar approach and started looking for mental elements of which complex phenomena were composed of. As water was analyzed into elements hydrogen and oxygen by chemists, the taste of lemonade (a perception) was considered to be composed of psychological elements (sensations) such as sweet, sour, salt and bitter. These elements were arrived at by the method of careful, trained introspection, (i.e. looking within oneself).
Use of introspection as the sole procedure for understanding mental elements was mainly due to the work of E B Thichener (1867-1927), an American student of Wundt. This system is called structuralism because it proposes to describe the mental structure. Presently this system has only historical importance.
B. Functionalism:
Psychologists like William James of Harvard University did experiments on ways in which learning, memory, problem solving and motivation helped people and animals adapt to their environment.
C. Behaviorism:
While both structuralism and functionalism had considered the method of introspection as a valid one, behaviorism, under the leadership of John B Watson (1878-1958) rejected it as being something of a private experience and not available for testing, observation and checking. The whole idea of consciousness is absurd. Behaviorism emphasized that conditioned reflexes were the elements and not sensation that constitute the behavior.
Conditioned reflexes are simple learned responses to stimuli. According to Watson, human behavior was made up of sets of conditioned reflexes. He stated that he could make anything out of an infant-a beggar, a lawyer or a criminal. Behaviorism does not admit of instincts or inborn tendencies. It emphasized the need for objective study forming the basis of understanding of human and animal behavior.
Behaviorist is not interested in feeling of fear because it is not measurable but he pays attention to changes in heart rate and blood pressure which are the effects of fear and can be objectively measured. The theory is based on Pavlov’s classical conditioning. Pavlov had concluded that all behavior is response to some stimulus (S-R) in the environment.
D. Gestalt Psychology:
This school of psychology was founded in Germany in 1912 by Max Wertheimer (1883- 1943) and his colleagues Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) and Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967).They felt that the structuralists were wrong in thinking the mind as made up of elements. They maintained the mind was not made up of a combination of simple elements. The German word, Gestalt, means “form” or “configuration” (an organized whole in contrast to the collection of parts). Perception is always related to the total situation.
The Gestalt psychologists maintained that the mind should be thought of as resulting from the whole pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and organizations within their patterns. For example, we recognize a tune in music when it is transposed to another key; the elements have changed but the pattern of relationship has remained the same.
E. Psychoanalysis:
Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). It is different from structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism and gestatism. In the course of his practice with neurotic patients in Vienna, Freud developed a theory based on unconscious motivation. The socially forbidden, personally unacceptable and painful desires, impulses, urges and wishes of the individual are being pushed away into the depths of the unconscious portions of the mind from the conscious layers.
This process is known as repression. However, these repressed impulses are active and try to occupy the conscious mind at least in a disguised manner, i.e. dreams, slips of pen and tongue and unconscious mannerisms. Sometimes they find socially acceptable expressions like the artistic, literary and scientific pursuits. According to Freudian theory, these repressed unconscious impulses are sexual in nature. Actually this attribution of sexuality to all motives bought unpopularity to Freud and his thinking.
F. Humanism:
When personality development focuses upon the development of self it is called humanism. This was developed in the United States by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and Carl Rogers (1902-1994). It focuses on the person’s subjective experiences, freedom of choice and motivation towards self-actualization.
Humanists believe that behavior is controlled by our own free will and not by the unconscious or by the environment. They are interested more in solving human problems than in the laboratory experiments. They want each person to reach his full potential, i.e. self-actualization.
Subfields/Branches/Scope of Psychology:
Branches Of Pure Psychology
1. General psychology
2. Abnormal psychology
3. Experimental psychology
4. Physiological psychology
5. Para psychology
6. Developmental psychology
Branches Of Applied Psychology
1. Educational psychology
2. Clinical psychology
3. Industrial psychology
4. Legal psychology
5. Military psychology
6. Political psychology
A. Pure Psychology: Pure psychology provides the framework and theory of the subject. Its contents deal with the formulation of psychological principles and theories, which suggest various techniques for analysis, assessment, modification and improvement of behaviour. Some branches of pure psychology are as follows:
1. General psychology: This is a relatively large field of pure psychology that deals with the fundamental rules, principles and theories of psychology in relation to the study of behavior of normal adult human beings.
2. Abnormal psychology: This branch of pure psychology describes and explains the psychopathology or abnormal behavior in relation to their environment. The cause, symptoms and description of the abnormal behavior is the subject matter.
3. Experimental psychology: This branch of pure psychology describes and explains the ways and means of carrying out psychological experiments along scientific lines under controlled or laboratory situations for the study of mental process and behavior.
4. Physiological psychology: This branch of pure psychology describes and explains the biology of behavior, i.e. the relationship between mental process and physiological processes. The physiological processes like neuron, brain and functions of the glands in relation to the human behavior are the core subject matter of this branch.
5. Developmental psychology: This branch of pure psychology develops more theories and concepts in the development of human behavior in different lifespans. It describes and explains the process and product of growth and development of human behavior from birth to old age in the domain of cognitive, physical and psychosocial development. For more detailed studies, this field is subdivided into branches such as child psychology, adolescent psychology and adult psychology
6. Para psychology: This branch of pure psychology deals with extrasensory perception (ESP), such as precognition, case of claimed rebirth, telepathy and allied phenomena.
B. Applied Psychology: In applied psychology, the theory generated or developed through pure psychology is applied in the specific area of studies. In this branch, psychological principles and theories are used to solve the problem in any area of life. Under this area of studies, there are numerous branches that are developed and are developing. There are some major branches of applied psychology described as follows:
1. Educational psychology: This branch of applied psychology seeks to apply the psychological principles, theories and techniques to human behavior in education situations. The subject matter of this branch covers psychological ways and means of improving all the aspects of teaching-learning process.
2. Clinical psychology: This branch of applied psychology is very popular in psychology as it describes and explains mental illness or abnormal behavior and develops various assessments for mental disorders and suggests individual or group therapy to treat these disorders. It uses psychological principles for effective modification of behavior in mentally ill patients.
3. Industrial or Organizational psychology: This branch of applied psychology is also known as industrial or occupational psychology. It applies the psychological principles to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of organizational behavior by solving behavioral problems in organizations.
It always seeks to study the behavior of employees and organizational style of management to improve the employee-employer relationship, solve organizational conflicts and the characteristics of the working environment, so that there may be significant improvement in the behavior of employees of organization.
4. Military psychology: This branch of applied psychology is the application of psychological theories and experimentation data in order to understand, predict and control the behavior of army soldiers. This branch is applied in counseling and treatment of stress and fatigue of military personnel as well as treatment of psychological trauma suffered as a result of military operations. This branch also uses psychological assessment to the recruitment of military personnel.
5. Counseling psychology: This branch of applied psychology concerns with the problems of everyday life, such as academic, social, emotional, occupational and organizational. This branch applies psychological principles to analyze the problems and provide effective counseling therapy to them.
6. Legal psychology: This branch of applied psychology studies the behavior of clients, criminals, witnesses, etc., in their respective surroundings with the application of psychological principles and techniques. It contains the subject matter for improving the ways and means of detection of crimes, identification and apprehension of false witnesses and other complex issues. This branch not only deals with detecting the criminal behavior but also provides the effective ways and means to modify their delinquent behavior into social acceptance.
Importance of Psychology in Different Fields:
1. In the Field of Education/Learning:
- Psychology has contributed a great deal towards the improvement of the processes and products of education.
- The application of psychology in the field of education has helped learners to learn, teachers to teach, administrators to administer and educational trainers to plan efficiently and effectively.
- It has helped in the assessment of natural abilities and acquired characteristics.
- Theories of learning, motivation and personality are responsible for shaping and designing educational systems according to the needs of the students.
2. In the Field of Medicine:
- Behavior counts much more than medicines and behavior can be learned only through psychology.
- It has removed many superstitions in the diagnosis and cure of mental and physical diseases.
- Psychology has contributed many valuable therapeutic measures like behavior therapy, group therapy, shock therapy and psychoanalysis. macb stis.
- A doctor, nurse or any other person who attends the patient needs to know the science of behavior to achieve good results.
3. In the Field of Guidance and Counseling:
- Knowledge of psychology helps to provide guidance and counseling to persons with problems of adjustment, in the field of education, employment and private life.
4. In the Field of Industry and Business Management:
- In the field of manufacturing, sales or advertising one has to apply the principles of psychology such as needs, motives, interests and individual differences for
good returns. - Psychology has helped in selection, training and placement of staff in industry.
- It has increased working capacity and efficiency of both men and machine and helped in the establishment of harmonious relationship between the employer and employee, manufacturer and consumer resulting in maximum economy and output.
5. In the Field of Law:
- Psychology has changed our outlook on criminology
- The criminals are no longer treated as degenerated beasts. They are now treated as human beings suffering from mental deficiencies and efforts are accordingly made for their rehabilitation as useful members of the society.
- A background knowledge of psychology is very useful for our lawmakers to know the formal and informal laws of the country.
6. Psychology as a Teaching Subject:
- Psychology has a large scope as a teaching subject in colleges and universities.
- A background knowledge of human behavior is essential for various professions including senior administrators (e.g. IAS cadre) Psychology can be taken up also as a fulltime profession.
7. In the Field of Self-development:
- Psychology helps the individual to – know his assets and limitations, abilities and short comings, habits and temperament.
- This knowledge may lead one to set realisticvels of aspirations, change his habits, and seek self-control, adequate adjustment, development and progress.
- It may help him control his emotions, building of proper sentiments and character.
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